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PartⅠ Introduction1

1 Introduction3

Meaning, Cognition and the Domain of Anthropological Linguistics3

The Nature of Meaning5

Meaning as Mental Representation7

Meaning as Enaction8

Social Phenomena11

Culture as Embodied Practice12

Preface by Halliday F13

王宗炎序 F14

Meaning in Cultural Practice-Symbolic Anthropology15

Preface by Chomsky F17

Culture as Cognition-Cognitive Anthropology18

Cultural Practices and Social Differentiation21

沈家煊序 F24

The Idea of Linguistic Practices24

The Nature of the Linguistic Sign: Icon, Index, Symbol25

导读 F27

Language as Signs and their Combinations27

Grammar: The Computational System29

Grammar: The Conceptual System33

Preface F36

Grammatical Categories37

Acknowledgments F38

Summary40

Further Reading40

PartⅡ The Evolution of Language41

2 The Evolution of Language43

Evolution as Natural Drift43

Human Evolution: From Apes to Modern Humans48

Australopithecines50

Homo Habilis52

Homo Erectus54

Homo Sapiens55

Increase in Brain Size59

Language versus Speech61

Lateralization and the Anatomical Bases of Language61

Precursors of Language in Apes63

The Development of Human Language66

The Social Dimension to Language Evolution68

The Evolution of Language in the Genus Homo70

Summary74

Epilog: Are Great Apes Capable of Language?75

Further Reading78

PartⅢ Universalism: Innate Constraints on Mind79

Plato s Cave and the Theory of Universal Innate Ideas81

3 Mind, Universals, and the Sensible World81

The Kantian Synthesis83

The Kantian Legacy84

The Use of Representations in Cognitive Studies86

Universals and Representations87

Challenges to Representations: Connectionism and Enactionism89

Summary90

Further Reading91

4 Structuralism92

Saussure92

Structuralism Illustrated: The Phoneme93

Contributions of the Prague School94

Structuralism and the Meaning of the Sign96

Levi-Strauss s Innovations98

An Example of Structural Analysis in Anthropology: Taboo in English101

Further Reading105

Summary105

5 Cognitive Anthropology106

The Intellectual Background of Cognitive Anthropology106

Componential Analysis108

Taxonomy112

Universalist Trends in Cognitive Anthropology114

Biological Taxonomies: Berlin s Approach to Ethnobiological Classification115

Classification and Hidden Nature120

Challenges to Berlin s Approach122

Taxonomies in Other Domains?124

Partonomy125

Scripts and Cultural Practices126

Summary129

Further Reading130

The Terms of Kinship Analysis131

6 Kinship131

Universals of Kinship132

An Analysis of Watam Consanguineal Kin Terms134

Lounsbury s Reduction Rules and Universals of Kinship139

Crow-type Kinship Systems141

Trobriand Kinship and the Skewing Rule143

Universals and Variation in Kinship Systems145

Relativist Responses to Universalist Approaches to Kinship146

Summary148

Further Reading149

7 Color150

The Neurophysiology of Color150

Color Categorization152

Types of Basic Color Terminologies154

Universal Constraints on Basic Color Terminologies159

Relativist Responses to Proposed Universals of Color Terminologies160

Summary164

Further Reading165

PartⅣ Relativism: Cultural and Linguistic Constraints on Mind167

8 On Relativist Understanding169

The Idea of Relativism169

The Problem of Translation170

The Bridgehead of Understanding171

Hermeneutics173

Hermeneutics and Translation of Grammatical Categories175

Relativism and Enactionism176

Summary177

Further Reading178

9 Models and Metaphors179

Models for Understanding179

Metaphor as Constitutive of Understanding182

Metaphor and Embodied Experience183

The Conduit Metaphor and the Understanding of Meaning185

Cultural Models and Metaphors: Emotions in American English187

Models, Metaphors, and Grammatical Categories188

Summary191

Further Reading191

10 Linguistic Relativity and the Boasian Tradition192

The Boasian Tradition and its European Precursors192

Boas194

Sapir196

Whorf199

Whorf s Theory of Cognitive Appropriation203

Neo-Whorfianism: The Empirical Studies of Lucy208

Silverstein s Reformulation211

Summary213

Further Reading214

11 Space215

Proposed Universals of Space215

Relativities in Spatial Conceptualization: The Case of Guugu-Yimidhirr216

Testing for Relativites of Understanding218

Another Example: Tzeltal of Mexico222

Topological Propertices of Space225

Relativities of Spatial Conception and Language Acquisition227

Summary228

Further Reading229

12 Classifiers230

Ontological Relativity230

The Nature of Classifiers232

Typology of Classifier Systems235

Cognitive Consequences of Ontological Relativity239

Universal Ontology versus Ontological Relativity241

Summary245

Further Reading245

PartⅤ The Ethnography of Speaking247

13 Speaking as a Culturally Constructed Act: A Few Examples249

Communicative Relativity249

Language in Litigation: The Courtroom250

Talking Among Australian Aboriginals252

Language and Disputes Among the Ilongot of the Philippines254

Greetings: Australo-American and African Style256

Summary259

Further Reading259

14 Politeness, Face, and the Linguistic Construction of Personhood260

Linguistic Practices, Person and Habitus260

The Construction of Personhood261

Self versus Person262

Local Conceptions of Personhood264

The Linguistic Construction of Personhood and the Concept of Face269

Politeness, and Positive and Negative Face270

Crosscultural Differences in Politeness and Face273

The Cooperative Principle and its Conversational Maxims275

Crosscultural Variation of the Cooperative Principle: The Malagasy Case278

The Cooperative Principle and the Determination of Meaning280

Local Constructions of Personhood and Linguistic Relativity282

Summary284

Further Reading285

15 Language and Gender286

The Cultural Construction of Gender286

Gender Differences in Linguistic Practices: Three Cultures289

Male Linguistic Dominance in American English293

The Two Cultures Model296

Gender Deixis299

Gender Markers301

Women and Linguistic Conservatism302

Women and Politeness304

Summary305

Further Reading306

16 Language and Social Position307

Social Inequality: Class, Power, and Prestige307

Social Roles310

Other Types of Social Structure311

Social Deixis: The T/V Phenomenon313

Social Deixis and Honorifics: Fapanese318

Social Deixis and Honorifics: Favanese323

Social Deixis in Egalitarian Societies: Age and Kinship Relations326

Social Markers: Sociolinguistic Variables328

Social Markers: Code Switching333

Social Markers and Ethnicity337

Summary342

Further Reading343

17 Language Socialization345

The Acquisition of Communicative Competence: Three Cultures345

Linguistic Socialization of Gender Roles348

Linguistic Socialization of Status Roles351

The Acquisition of Communicative Norms354

Summary357

Further Reading358

18 Genre: Poetics, Ritual Languages, and Verbal Art359

Genres and Framing360

Intertextuality360

The Poetic Function362

Framing Devices: Lexical Shifts364

Parallelism366

Paralinguistic Features370

Genres and Context371

Intertextual Caps372

Minimizing Intertextual Gaps373

Maximizing Intertextual Gaps375

Summary377

Further Reading378

PartⅥ Culture and Language Change379

19 Contact Induced Language Change381

Sources of Cultural Change381

Linguistic Change383

Types of Linguistic Change: Borrowing and Interference384

Interference and Multilingualism389

Linguistic Areas391

Pidgin Langusages392

Language Death395

Summary396

Further Reading397

20 Standard Languages and Linguistic Engineering398

The Concept of the Nation-State and the National Language398

The Development of Standard English400

The Fate of Dutch as a Standard language403

Standard Languages in Norway405

Building National Identities406

Standard Languages and Elite Hegemony408

Forging a Standard Language: The Case of Indonesian410

Modernization in Language Standardization413

The Westernization of Standard Thai415

Summary415

Further Reading416

The Cognitive Consequences of Literacy417

21 Literacy417

Written Language as Decontextualized420

Literacy as a Social Force421

Cognitive Effects: Literacy versus Schooling423

The Practice Approach to Literacy424

The Oral / L iterate Continuum425

Literacy, Genres, and Privilege427

Literacy Practices in Three American Communities429

Literacy Practices Among the Athabaskans of Canada431

Literacy Practices Among the Gapun of New Guinea432

Summary433

Further Reading434

References435

Index469

文库索引496