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1 HISTORY AND NATURE OF INTERNATIONAL LAW1

1.1 Definition of International Law6

1.2 A Brief History of International Law7

1.3 The Nature of International Law14

1.4 Enforcement of International Law16

1.5 Situations to which International Law is Relevant19

2 SOURCES OF INTERNATIONAL LAW25

2.1 Introduction31

2.2 Treaties33

2.3 International Custom35

2.4 The Relationship between Treaties and International Custom42

2.5 Special Rules of Customary International Law： Jus Cogens and Rules Creating Erga Omnes Obligations48

2.6 General Principles of International Law52

2.7 Judicial Decisions56

2.8 The Writings of Publicists59

2.9 Equity60

2.10 Secondary Law of International Governmental Organisations （IGOs）62

2.11 Declarations—An Uncertain Source？64

2.12 Soft Law64

2.13 Codification of International Law： The Contribution of the International Law Commission （ILC）70

3 THE LAW OF TREATIES76

3.1 Introduction87

3.2 The Main Features of the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties （VCLT）88

3.3 The Fundamental Principles of the Law of Treaties90

3.4 The Definition of a Treaty under the VCLT92

3.5 Conclusion of Treaties94

3.6 Reservations to Treaties98

3.7 Interpretative and Conditional Interpretative Declarations and their Relationship with Reservations105

3.8 Entry into Force， Deposit， Registration and Publication of Treaties107

3.9 Validity of Treaties109

3.10 Application of Treaties116

3.11 Amendment and Modification of Treaties120

3.12 Interpretation of Treaties122

3.13 Termination and Suspension of Treaties127

3.14 Settlement of Disputes134

4 INTERNATIONAL LAW AND MUNICIPAL LAW142

4.1 Introduction146

4.2 The Relationship between International Law and Municipal Law146

4.3 Municipal Law before International Courts and Tribunals149

4.4 International Law before UK Courts152

4.5 European Union （EU） Law in UK Courts170

5 INTERNATIONAL PERSONALITY175

5.1 Introduction182

5.2 States and the Criteria for Statehood185

5.3 Independent States192

5.4 Dependent States194

5.5 Sui Generis Entities197

5.6 Internationalised Territories198

5.7 De Facto Regimes200

5.8 Mandates and Trusteeship Territories201

5.9 Insurgents， Belligerents and National Liberation Movements202

5.10 Territories under UN Administration203

5.11 International Governmental Organisations （IGOs）204

5.12 Individuals207

5.13 Non-Governmental Organisations （NGOs）214

5.14 Multinational Corporations （MNCs）216

6 RECOGNITION OF STATES， GOVERNMENTS AND INTERGOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS IN INTERNATIONAL LAW221

6.1 Introduction224

6.2 Recognition of a State in International Law225

6.3 Recognition of Governments236

6.4 Recognition of States and Governments in the Municipal Law of England239

6.5 Recognition of IGOs in the Municipal Law of England252

7 TERRITORIAL SOVEREIGNTY259

7.1 Introduction265

7.2 Different Types of Territorial Sovereignty266

7.3 The Principles and Rules Applicable to the Acquisition of Title to Territory268

7.4 The Modes of Acquisition of Title to Territory276

7.5 Other Circumstances Relevant to the Acquisition of Territory292

7.6 The Acquisition of Territory in Polar Regions296

7.7 Restrictions on the Transfer of Territory299

7.8 The Loss of Territory299

7.9 Rights over Parts of Territory of a Foreign State：International Leases and Servitudes300

8 JURISDICTION308

8.1 Introduction312

8.2 The Territoriality Principle315

8.3 The Nationality Principle317

8.4 The Protective Principle318

8.5 The Passive Personality Principle322

8.6 The Universality Principle324

8.7 Universal Jurisdiction in Tort337

8.8 Concurrent Jurisdiction338

8.9 The ‘Effects Doctrine’340

8.10 Jurisdiction to Adjudicate344

8.11 Jurisdiction to Enforce346

9 IMMUNITY FROM NATIONAL JURISDICTION352

9.1 Introduction357

9.2 State Immunity， Non-Justiciability and the Act of State Doctrine358

9.3 State Immunity and its Evolution362

9.4 The Terrorism Exception to State Immunity under the 1976 US Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act （FSIA） and its Amendments384

9.5 UK Law on State Immunity： The 1978 State Immunity Act （SIA） and the Common Law386

9.6 The 2004 UN Convention on Jurisdictional Immunities of States and Their Property （The UN Immunity Convention）392

9.7 Immunity of Heads of State and other High Ranking State Officials395

9.8 Diplomatic Immunity399

9.9 Quasi-Diplomatic Privileges and Immunities407

9.10 Immunities of International Governmental Organisations （IGOs）407

9.11 Immunities of Visiting Armed Forces413

10 STATE RESPONSIBILITY FOR WRONGFUL ACTS417

10.1 Introduction424

10.2 The Theories on State Responsibility427

10.3 imputability431

10.4 Direct and Indirect International Wrongs437

10.5 Direct International Wrongs： Aggrieved Responsibility437

10.6 Direct International Wrongs： Ordinary Responsibility440

10.7 Indirect International Wrongs： The Treatment of Aliens443

10.8 The Treatment of Aliens： Admission and Expulsion446

10.9 The Treatment of Aliens： Denial of Justice449

10.10 The Treatment of Aliens： Expropriation of Foreign Property450

10.11 Admissibility of State Claims： Diplomatic Protection458

10.12 Circumstances Precluding Wrongfulness477

10.13 Consequences of Invoking a Circumstance Precluding Wrongfulness481

10.14 Reparation for injury481

11 AN OVERVIEW OF THE INTERNATIONAL PROTECTION OF HUMAN RIGHTS491

11.1 Introduction499

11.2 The International Bill of Human Rights： The Universal Declaration of Human Rights and its Implementation through the 1966 Covenants505

11.3 Other Major UN Human Rights Treaties516

11.4 The UN Human Rights Enforcement Machinery526

11.5 Regional Arrangements for the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights532

11.6 Human Rights in Customary Law and as Rules of Jus Cogens565

11.7 General Conclusions566

12 SELF-DETERMINATION OF PEOPLES573

12.1 Introduction579

12.2 The Evolution of the Principle of Self-Determination：From a Political Concept to a Legal Concept581

12.3 Decolonisation588

12.4 The Limit of the Right to Self-Determination in the Colonial Context591

12.5 The Extension of the Right to Self-Determination to People Living under Racist Regimes and Foreign Domination592

12.6 The Right to Self-Determination as a Human Right598

12.7 Self-Determination in the Post-Cold War Era600

12.8 Conclusion611

13 PEACEFUL SETTLEMENT OF DISPUTES BETWEEN STATES615

13.1 Introduction621

13.2 Diplomatic Means of Dispute Settlement between States622

13.3 Arbitration625

13.4 Mixed Claims Commissions633

13.5 From the Permanent Court of International Justice （PCIJ） to the International Court of Justice （ICJ）634

13.6 The ICJ： Functions， Composition and Organisation637

13.7 The ICJ： Contentious Jurisdiction641

13.8 The ICJ： Advisory Jurisdiction672

13.9 Assessment of the ICJ678

14 THE USE OF FORCE687

14.1 Introduction693

14.2 From the Right to Wage War to a Total Prohibition of War694

14.3 The Prohibition of the Threat or Use of Force under the UN Charter700

14.4 Exceptions to the Prohibition of the Threat or the Use of Force Based on Self-Defence705

14.5 Collective Self-Defence727

14.6 Controversial Uses of Force729

15 COLLECTIVE SECURITY745

15.1 Introduction749

15.2 The Role of the UNSC in the Maintenance of International Peace and Security753

15.3 The Role of the UNGA in the Maintenance of International Peace and Security： The Uniting for Peace Resolution765

15.4 UN Peacekeeping and its Role in the Maintenance of International Peace and Security770

15.5 Regional Arrangements and Agencies and their Role in the Maintenance of International Peace and Security775

16 INTERNATIONAL HUMANITARIAN LAW783

16.1 Introduction790

16.2 The Fundamental Principles of IHL792

16.3 The Law Relating to the Conduct of Armed Conflicts （The Hague Law）799

16.4 The Law Relating to the Protection of Victims of Armed Conflicts （The Geneva Law）818

16.5 The Scope of Application and the Content of IHL821

16.6 Breaches of IHL844

16.7 The Role of the International Committee of the Red Cross （ICRC）847

Glossary of Latin and Foreign Words and Maxims855

Index861