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1 Introduction1

Police Goals and Objectives2

Evidence Defined7

The Interpretive Value of Evidence8

Good Crime Scene Examinations and Scene Integrity Issues13

Investigative Ethics18

Summary21

Suggested Reading22

Chapter Questions22

Notes22

2 Understanding the Nature of Physical Evidence25

Class and Individual Characteristics26

Fingerprint Evidence28

Serology and Biological Evidence30

Trace Evidence37

Hairs and Fibers38

Glass39

Paints and Polymers42

Soils43

Gunshot Residues (GSRs)44

Firearm and Ballistic Evidence44

Tool Mark Evidence50

Impression Evidence51

General Chemical Evidence54

Document Evidence55

Computer Forensics56

Forensic Pathology57

Summary58

Suggested Reading58

Chapter Questions59

Notes59

3 Actions of the Initial Responding Officer61

Specific Objectives of the Initial Response61

Documenting Initial Information62

Officer Safety63

Emergency Care64

Secure and Control the Crime Scene70

Release the Scene to Appropriate Authorities75

Summary76

Suggested Reading76

Chapter Questions76

Notes77

4 Processing Methodology79

Basic Activities of Scene Processing80

Assessing80

Observing80

Documenting81

Searching81

Collecting81

Processing/Analyzing83

A Processing Model84

The Adapted USACIDC Processing Model85

Step 1: Initial Notification85

Step 2: Coordination, Assessment, and Team Call-Out85

Step 3: Conduct Initial Observations85

Step 4: Deal with the Deceased86

Step 5: Photograph the Scene87

Step 6: Document Overall Observations87

Step 7: Sketch the Scene88

Step 8: Conduct a First Recheck88

Step 9: Release the Body88

Step 10: Collect Items of Evidence90

Step 11: Conduct a Second Recheck of the Scene90

Step 12: Conduct a Third Recheck of the Scene91

Step 13: Check beyond the Scene91

Step 14: Conduct an On-Scene Debriefing of the Investigative Team91

Step 15: Release or Secure the Scene91

Step 16: Process and Package Evidence92

Step 17: Conduct a Formal Debriefing92

Summary92

Suggested Reading93

Chapter Questions93

Notes93

5 Assessing the Scene95

Debriefing the Responding Officers95

Scene Scope and Boundary Assessment98

Scene Integrity and Contamination Control98

Managing Access103

Defining Team Composition105

Crime Scene Search Considerations108

Search Patterns113

Circle or Spiral Search113

Strip and Line Search114

Grid Search115

Zone Search115

Point-to-Point Search118

Personal Protective Measures and Hazard Identification118

Biohazard Risks119

Structural Hazards in Fire and Explosion Scenes121

Chemical and Inhalation Hazards in Fire and Explosion Scenes122

Inhalation, Chemical, or Fire Hazards from Scene Processing Techniques122

Chemical and Bioterror Hazards123

Considerations for Mass Crime Scene and Mass Casualty Situations124

Pre-Event Considerations of Crime Scene Supervisors125

Practical On-Scene Considerations for the Mass Scene127

Managing the Media128

Summary129

Suggested Reading132

Chapter Questions132

Notes132

6 Crime Scene Photography135

What Makes Good Photographs136

Recurring Problems in Crime Scene Photography138

Identification Problems139

Orientation Problems140

Confusion Problems140

Incomplete Documentation142

Types and Purpose of Crime Scene Photographs142

Overall Photographs142

Corner or Side—You Decide143

Evidence-Establishing Photographs148

What's in a Name: Evidence-Establishing vs. Mid-Range Photos151

Evidence Close-Up and Forensic Quality Photographs153

The Road Mapping Method of Photographic Documentation156

A Basic Methodology to Crime Scene Photography172

Camera Control Issues175

Video Photography178

Summary180

Suggested Reading181

Chapter Questions181

Notes181

7 Crime Scene Sketching and Mapping183

Essential Sketch Elements183

Variations of View in Sketches186

Methods for Crime Scene Mapping190

Rectangular Coordinates192

Triangulation194

Baseline Coordinates197

Polar Coordinates201

Triangulation or Rectangular Coordinates on a Grid207

Triangulation on a Baseline212

Technology in Support of Crime Scene Mapping213

Total Station Mapping213

Scan Station Mapping217

Summary220

Suggested Reading221

Chapter Questions221

Notes221

8 Narrative Descriptions: Crime Scene Notes and Reports223

Investigative Notes223

Crime Scene Reports228

Introduction Section229

Characteristics of the Scene229

Conditions of the Scene231

Environmental Conditions233

Factors Pertinent to Entry and Exit234

Scene Documentation234

Collection of Physical Evidence235

Search for Latent Fingerprints or DNA235

Additional Examinations236

General Considerations236

Summary237

Suggested Reading237

Chapter Questions237

9 Basic Skills for Scene Processing239

ROSS M. GARDNER WITH CONTRIBUTIONS BY DON COFFEY, JEREMY JOHN, AND TOM ADAIRApplying Light Technology239

Shortwave Ultraviolet Light (180 to 254 nm) and Reflected Ultraviolet Imaging Systems (RUVIS)242

Longwave Ultraviolet Light (365 to 415 nm)245

Near-UV and Violet/Blue Light (415 to 485 nm)246

Crime Scene Search with Blue Light (485 to 530 nm)246

Orange-Red (570 to 700 nm)246

Infrared (700 to 2,000 nm)246

Heat Energy and Thermal Imaging (12,000 nm)250

Choosing an Alternative Light Source251

Recovering Fingerprints254

The Science of Fingerprints254

Classification vs. Identification256

AFIS Fingerprint Systems257

Collecting Fingerprint Evidence258

Surface Characteristics259

Porous Surfaces260

Nonporous Smooth Surfaces261

Nonporous Rough Surfaces262

Special Surfaces or Conditions264

On-Scene Fingerprinting Techniques265

Cyanoacrylate Fuming (Superglue Fuming)266

Basic Brush-and-Powder Techniques268

Small-Particle Reagent272

Adding Machine Paper Technique for Human Skin274

Crystal Violet Solution for Adhesive Tape276

Fingerprints in Fire Scenes277

Casting Impression Evidence278

Rubber Casting Compounds279

Electrostatic Dust Lifting Devices281

Dental Stone Casting Techniques284

Snow Prints290

Gelatin and Other Adhesive Lifters294

Summary296

Suggested Reading297

Chapter Questions297

Notes298

10 Shooting Scene Documentation and Reconstruction299

ROSS M. GARDNER AND MICHAEL MALONEYInternal Ballistics300

Terminal Ballistics302

External Ballistics304

Bullet Defect Verification through Chemical Evaluation304

Defining the Bullet Impact Angle Based on Defect Shape306

Direction of Fire311

Use of Trajectory Rods and Lasers to Demonstrate Bullet Flight Paths316

Describing Zones of Possibility324

Trajectory Analysis Documentation326

Summary327

Suggested Reading328

Chapter Questions328

Notes328

11 Applying Bloodstain Pattern Analysis in the Crime Scene331

Bloodstain Pattern Analysis331

Theory and Underlying Principles of Bloodstain Pattern Analysis331

The Pattern Diversity Principle332

The Principle of Stain Shape and Vector Correlation334

The Physically Altered Bloodstain Principle339

Methodology of BPA339

Classifying Bloodstain Patterns339

Documenting Bloodstain Patterns351

Presumptive Tests for Bloodstains353

Luminol Enhancement of Latent Bloodstains355

Fluorescein Enhancement of Latent Bloodstains357

Amido-Black Enhancement of Latent Bloodstains358

Infrared Photography358

Summary358

Suggested Reading361

Chapter Questions361

Notes362

12 The Body as a Crime Scene363

ROSS M. GARDNER AND MICHAEL MALONEYExamination of the Corpse In Situ363

Assessing363

Observing, Documenting, Searching, and Collecting366

Examination of the Corpse at the Morgue369

Examination of a Live Individual369

Understanding Basic Mechanisms of Injuries371

Summary381

Suggested Reading381

Chapter Questions381

13 Special Scene Considerations383

Fire Scenes383

Fire Patterns384

Problems Associated with Fire Scenes389

Fire Scene Methodology390

Landfill Recoveries394

Problems Associated with Landfill Recoveries394

Landfill Recovery Methodology396

Buried and Scattered Remains399

Buried Bodies399

Scattered Remains405

Entomological Evidence Associated with Bodies407

Summary408

Suggested Reading410

Chapter Questions410

Notes410

14 The Role of Crime Scene Analysis and Reconstruction413

A History of the Concept of Crime Scene Reconstruction416

The Underlying Principles of Crime Scene Reconstruction418

Crime Scene Reconstruction Methodology420

Scientific Method Used to Resolve a Specific Investigative Question421

Event Analysis: Reconstructing Entire Events423

Step 1: Collect Data, Establish Likely Events425

Step 2: Establish Event Segments from the Data Available426

Step 3: Define Associated Event Segments430

Step 4: Order and Sequence the Associated Event Segments431

Step 5: Audit the Information434

Step 6: Determine and Final-Order the Events434

Step 7: Final Flowchart of the Overall Incident Based on the Event and Event Segment Sequence435

Summary436

Suggested Reading437

Chapter Questions437

Notes437

Appendix A: Crime Scene Equipment439

Appendix B: Risk Management445

Index449